This content explores the concepts of citizenship, welfare, and social security within social policy, particularly for individuals with intellectual disabilities. It examines how risk, welfare provision, and social security frameworks influence social inclusion and wellbeing.
Citizenship is one of the leading parts of society for reaching the social goal under social policy specifically for individuals with particular intellectual disabilities, however, the concept of citizenship is inevitable and valuable. The idea of citizenship is a legal status that ensures membership of an individual in a nation, community, or state. Welfare mainly refers to the government policies and programs that are designed for the promotion of the economic and social well-being of residents. According to the context of the study, risk can be referred to as the possibility of something undesirable and unwanted happening those results in harm or loss. Social security is the chosen policy domain for the study and this essay will develop an adequate understanding of social security with contrary facts. Besides this, the work will explain a broad idea regarding welfare that eventually changes. The idea and impact of modernity will be evaluated in this essay along with the provision of the postmodernity concept that changed since WW2. The link between social security and the UK welfare along with its risks will be detached in this work with mitigation strategies. The citizenship concept of T H Marshall and social citizen will be discussed in this work. Besides the idea of social capital by Coleman related to the provision of social security will be analysed in this work. The theory of Risk by Beck will be stated in this work along with resilience and vulnerability under social security. The understanding related to the welfare state will be demonstrated in this essay as the social surveillance concept of Foucault.
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The concept of social provision changed over time due to emerging privatisation and the rapid necessity of personal wealth gain. The concept of the welfare state is difficult to define according to the concept of sociologists and historians. However, socialism argues against the fact that welfare refers to different things for different people (Fraser, 2024). Political ideologies have a significant influence on the concept of welfare over time and ensuring better protection for vulnerable groups according to the provision of welfare services for the right social security. The welfare state is the primary part of majority of the modern societies in order to ensure equal income and this is the key responsibility of the state. The welfare state has become a fundamental feature of modern society. According to the model social democratic model ‘worlds of welfare’ is the primary idea of the welfare state and according to the social policy history, this context involves a time-bound ratio.
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After WW2 such as from 1940 welfare state creation became pivotal. Based on this model and analysis the idea of a Welfare State came to the societal factor with unusual specificity. The twentieth century has been portrayed as one of the critical eras as the first half of the era witnessed the massive rise of totalitarianism, genocides and most importantly two world wars (Béland et al., 2021). The idea of a welfare state invokes certain other things that are not the same as the conventional idea of a ‘welfare state’. However, the ideas went beyond ensuring active income maintenance from education and housing to health in the UK. According to the political ideology of Marx, the initial utilisation of the ‘ideology’ term mainly indicates the idea of science. From Hegelian views to Bonaprte’s political ideology counted as the dangerous reformation of radicalism based on political ideologies (Vincent, 2023). As it began to involve in modern societies and actions confusion arose such as this volume focusing on outcomes and policies.
The concept of the British state mainly emerged from the Act of Union between the Kindom of Scotland and England in the year 1707. In order to ensure social security, the idea of welfare became a predominant factor in the UK. In addition, the process stepped into the system by the idea of the ‘relation of taxation or extraction’ that merges together ruled and rulers as the central part of the social contract from the idea of Locke eventually took shape as the heart of modern society. The idea of social security is linked with citizens and their assets that need to be protected in return they have to provide adequate financial support to the state as tax for its welfare (Bhambra, 2022). The prior risk that comes under this fact is poverty reduction which had become one of the critical actions that affected the function of the regime for formalising primary challenges in the society. The idea of employment is one of the leading concerns related to social security in the UK and the former pandemic affected the entire process in a negative way.
Ireland and the UK showed a rapid response to the economic and health impacts of COVID-19 with proper support in incomes through jobless instruments and job retention (Hick and Murphy, 2021). Risk related to unemployment is one of the critical concerns that has been faced by the UK due to the lack of prominent job retention schemes. On the other side, one of the major risks that has become part of social security is migration. Social policy and welfare increasingly become instruments to govern migration internally beyond the state and borders. The state-of-the-art article mainly situates the prior contribution of migrant access factors such as housing, labour market and healthcare (Ratzmann and Sahraoui, 2021). Hence, based on evaluation it has been identified that the intersection of national welfare policy requires an adequate implementation to ensure social security within the internal bordering.
The idea of citizenship has re-emerged as the leading challenge central part of political concern that raises troubles against social security by concerning limited access to the healthcare system, welfare state and education institutions. However, the traditional theoretical debates according to sociology focus on the condition of social solidarity and social integration. Based on the citizenship theory citizenship is a constitution and constitutive of a certain societal community. Besides, this theory stated that France, Germany, England, the United States and Holland showed certain variables (Lillie and Ndomo, 2021). First, the active or passive nature of citizenship depends on the development of citizenship. On the contrary, the conservative theory of citizenship states passive and active citizenship is a revolutionary idea which is dynamic by its idea. The concept of citizenship theory involves the inclusive integration of migrants based on the objective of politics.
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However, citizenship theory counters that citizenship has a complex relationship with economic citizenship. According to the social capital theory of Coleman, the idea of social capital has become one of the powerful factors of social science. This theory exchanges economic sociology based on the social structure that results in the petrification of interpersonal relations based on the condition of individuals as per effective actions. The citizenship theory of Coleman involves an individualistic approach that mainly places the activities of individuals located in certain structures as an action centre for vigorous analysis (Mikiewicz, 2021). Based on the idea of social security and citizenship theory social capital needs to have three prior features such as shared norms and values, social relationships that are multidimensional in nature and active social control.
On the contrary citizenship competencies are essential to ensure successful interaction with prior public administration that remain as widely neglected resources. The idea of administrative burden is the leading factor affecting the proper actions of social security due to the negative result of administrative burden from prior state-citizen interaction that has a major influence on citizens depending on the available sources for coping in the upcoming days. According to Social Security citizens usually encounter public organisations under different life situations as part of social welfare (Döring, 2021). Based on the necessity of the citizens at certain times they need to interact with the government body that linked with state-citizen interaction and public administration that received direct attention within the social field. Despite the critical importance of public administration development of better relations between the state and citizens is fundamental and the role of trust is another prior factor (Choi and Cristol, 2021). On the other side, citizenship determines individual public encounters that can eventually ensure better self-efficacy for strong and determinant individual behaviour. The idea of citizenship is rigorously examined for better social security, communication, and education to ensure all the rights of citizens.
However, in contrast, many researchers argue that applying and theorising the concept of citizenship has the ability to reduce challenges that are linked to citizenship however, the presence of a fragmented network society supports this idea by the utilisation of social media and the internet. On the other side, since the 1990s the field of citizenship education (CE) has been developed and developed major changes in the policy development of Europe and the UK to ensure adequate social security (Ryen and Jøsok, 2023). Due to the presence of alienation and polarisation, the acceptance level of the political authority began repressing challenges against the political order in the hope of better education and social security.
Ulrich Beck's "risk society" theory is a powerful conceptual tool to situate contemporary social insecurities, especially if one starts looking towards social security and income maintenance in the UK. Indeed, Beck observed that the industrial society has transitioned into another phase in which wealth has given way to the risk, namely not those threats that come naturally or are external, but those manufactured uncertainties germinating from the conversion of modernity. At the same time, social security stands as a buffer against systemic risks like unemployment and poverty or even volatility in the market, where negotiations occur.
Welfare reforms in the UK since the 1980s exemplified this shift towards managing individualised risks. For instance, while ostensibly reducing dependency by consolidating benefits and incentivizing work, the Universal Credit structure was developed per Beck's conception, a form of “responsibilities” whereby individuals are held accountable for risks formerly shared by the collective welfare state (Nail-Beatty et al., 2024). The shift from social security to consumer empowerment corresponds to the neoliberal agenda, but it primarily supports Beck's theory of increasing individualisation of risk.
Beck's approach emphasises how modernity creates new insecurities, including economic precariousness and the loss of traditional employment structures with which social policy now must respond. Some of Beck's analyses would do interesting work concerning how social security frameworks are being recalibrated to accommodate flexible labour markets, particularly in the UK after Brexit and COVID-19.
However, Beck's risk society thesis is not without reproach. It tends to be somewhat abstract and, as a theory, it is considered Eurocentric, overlooking that risks are unevenly distributed across class, gender, and race. For example, in the UK, welfare cuts made in the name of austerity have had a disproportionately negative impact on women and ethnic minorities, a concern opposed by Beck (Pietrocola et al., 2021). Furthermore, critics say that, in concentrating on modern societal risks, Beck is ignoring gaping structural inequalities which still determine many aspects of welfare, that is, generational poverty and systemic discrimination.
In contrast, Pierre Bourdieu's theory regarding social reproduction and symbolic violence would offer an alternative framework. Rather than viewing risk as the most recent manifestation of modernity, Bourdieu focuses on how welfare systems reinforce the prevailing social structures. In this light, benefit sanctions or limited access to income maintenance would represent a kind of risk management and an institutionalised form of social exclusion. Where Beck sees a new individualisation of risk, Bourdieu sees that same process continued by the power configurations embedded within the structures of the state.
Thus, while Beck's theory illuminates the changing character of risk concerning welfare, it needs to be supplemented by theories such as those voiced by Bourdieu to fully appreciate socio-political aspects concerning income maintenance in the United Kingdom.
According to the subject and power idea of Michelle Foucault the state has a persistent influence on humanity and social activities. On the other side, in contrast, Althusser diagnosed that the welfare state is a 'matrix' that totalises and individualises power. The idea of Michelle Foucault has two different leading concepts regarding subjectivation first, an individual needs to encounter as a citizen which is pastoral and disciplinary power is termed as 'internal subjugated’ (Villadsen, 2024). In the end, the governance subject develops power which intervenes in the environment in which people can make their rational and self-fashioning choices. The modern state is critically inherited with technology that affects the idea of social security by defining government as 'the code of conduct'. In addition to this welfare state is indispensable and argues on subjectivity, power, governance and political identity.
Moreover, the idea and subject of power are unclear according to the context of social security due to the over-presence of the government which the majority of the time goes against the preferences and will of citizens. Apart from this the idea of the welfare state in contrast involves different shortcomings such as the so-called idea of a modern state combined with two particular types of power one is administrative, statistical and legal power, and the other is individualising and specific individual centre power that revolves in their consciousness (Villadsen, 2024). In order to ensure the social security problems of the government is one of the primary factors in understanding political rationalities. According to the idea of welfare state knowledge creation and system naming is one of the prior responsibilities to ensure a better citizenship process activities and practices for better action in future. Apart from this, fostering particular habits for the welfare state is crucial for efficient power discipline.
Conclusion
In conclusion, analysis of Beck's theory of risk against the background of UK social security and income maintenance proves that one is dealing with an admittedly complicated interplay of modernisation, policy design and lived experience of insecurity. Beck's risk society succinctly captures the historical shift from collective modes of welfare provision to increasingly individualised responsibility, particularly interesting and revealingly evident in current UK reform movements such as Universal Credit (Cammisuli, Pietrabissa, and Castelnuovo, 2021).. The global precarity of labour markets and state withdrawal from their support mechanisms further emphasise the extent to which people now internalise modern risks and, hence, redefine the role of social security within society.
Yet, while Beck's angle is sharp, it fails in being overly abstract, and without entangling itself too much in the structural differences entrenched through time. Other orientations, such as Bourdieu's remark against state reproduction of social hierarchies, help to anchor the argument into material realities (Antonilli, 2022). They also highlight that risk is best understood not only as a by-product of modernity but in how class, race, and institutional power mediate such a phenomenon.
It gives critical value to policymakers and practitioners where this two-pronged theoretical engagement points out the demand to design social security systems that respond to emergent risks and actively dismantle systemic structures that reproduce vulnerability into practice. Thus, a genuinely resilient welfare regime has to balance the techniques of risk governance with a new moral demand for social justice and inclusion.
Reference
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